Friday, September 6, 2019
Treatment of People with Developmental Disabilities Essay Example for Free
Treatment of People with Developmental Disabilities Essay Throughout history people with developmental disabilities were treated as defective or somewhat less than human. They were placed in institutions and often forgotten, drugged or tortured simply because they were misunderstood. Jean-Marc Itard began working with people in France in the early eighteen hundreds in a first attempt to train developmentally disabled people. He later moved to the United States and continued his studies and practice. The first asylum to treat people with disabilities was opened in 1851. (History 6) The purpose of the asylum was to protect the people from the harshness of society and to educate the people with disabilities.            The beginning of the 1900’s consisted of a change to an attempt to protect society from the disabled people by putting them all in institutions. In the first half of the nineteen hundreds the number of institutions and the number of people in them grew significantly. The general public treated disabled people as deviants and people that should not be allowed to live among other people (Minnesota, part D). In 1924 a law was passed that allowed sterilization of people deemed as â€Å"feebleminded†. This population included epileptics and alcoholics (Longmore 1). By passing this law, the nation demonstrated it was not yet ready to fully accept people with developmental disabilities. Between 1925 and 1950, people began to realize again that the developmentally disabled were harmless to society and were best if they were trained. This did not keep people from placing their disabled children in institutions or keep doctors from recommending that parents place their children in institutions. Once a child was diagnosed with a disability, the child was often placed in an already over crowded institution where he was essentially forgotten.            Towards the end of the 1950’s and early 1960’s the views towards disabled people changed again. When John Kennedy became president he and his sister chose to spend time helping people with disabilities live more productive lives (National 1). During this time the trend began to change to respecting them and keeping people at home if possible. From that time, research has gradually increased to study the causes of developmental disabilities to greatly reduce the number of people born with them and when possible reduce the severity of the effects. Because of this the number of yearly cases of people born with severe disabilities has been greatly reduced.            From the later half of the nineteen hundreds to the present, the trend has moved towards encouraging people to keep their disabled children at home when possible and to educate the children along with average children. This method helps average children be more respectful of children with disabilities and helps the children with disabilities develop skills more quickly.            For many years people with disabilities were treated as less than human and often became the subjects of traveling shows carnival attractions. When not in shows, they were kept in institutions, where people could pretend they did not exist. Fortunately in the last fifty years, the public no longer fears disability and are not only more accepting, but willing to assist them. Society has come a long way towards accepting those who are different, but progress continues and needs to continue to be made. Works Cited: â€Å"A Short History of treatment for People with Mental Retardation†. 11 February 2008 http://www.ahrcnyc.org/pdf/chapter1_history.PDF Longmore, Paul. â€Å"Disability History Timeline†2002. Rehabilitation Research and            Training Center on Independent Living Management. 11 February 2008            http://isc.temple.edu/neighbor/ds/disabilityrightstimeline.htm National Institute of Child Health and Development. 8 September 2007.            11 February 2008 Establishment and history â€Å"Parallels in Time†2007. Minnesota’s Governor’s Council. 11 February 2008 Parallels In Time: A History of Developmental Disabilities
Thursday, September 5, 2019
The Ara Pacis: Monument of the Age of Augustus
The Ara Pacis: Monument of the Age of Augustus After 31 BC, as Augustus secured overall power in Rome, he set about a series of radical reforms which affected almost every area of public life, and some areas even of private life (the marriage laws, for example). His intentions were on a grand scale; he planned to regenerate Rome and its people after the disturbances of the late Republican period, and in more ways than one might have expected he succeeded. The price, of course, was the loss of republican liberties. Syme says â€Å"It was the end of a century of anarchy, culminating in twenty years of civil war and military tyranny. If despotism was the price, it was not too high†(Syme, 2). Suetonius’s account of the reign of Augustus is partly a list of reforms, in the army, the fabric of the city, the administration of justice, the customs of dress, the securing of public health and many others. Paul Zanker says that â€Å"The goal of his â€Å"cultural program†, pursued with far-reaching and concentrated e ffort over the next twenty years, was nothing less than a complete moral revival†(Zanker, 3), in which the focus of national and cultural attention would be himself, a ruler chosen by the gods, who embodied practically as well as symbolically the soul of the state. The excesses of the previous period were to be replaced by nobler and more serious public values, by a greater sense of national loyalty which would reject personal rivalries in the world of power politics and bring about an era of peace and security which would allow Rome to thrive. Such a radical revision of the public world naturally required a public imagery to support it and express its new codes. â€Å"Invidious private ostentation [was replaced] by a program of publica magnificentia†(Zanker, 3). Building in the city, and the visual arts generally, naturally became vehicles for conveying the new values. Favro says that Augustus â€Å"continuously used the built fabric of the city to convey policy†(Favro, 141). The Ara Pacis was built between 13 and 9 BC, and is a key monument for the display of the Augustan principles. Augustus himself records its construction in the Res Gestae: â€Å"When I returned from Spain and Gaul after successfully settling the affairs of those provinces†¦ the Senate decreed that the Altar of Augustan Peace should be consecrated for my return near the Campus Martius†(Brunt Moore, 25). Augustus had been away on this military campaign for three years, and the Ara Pacis was a tribute to him, but also to the idea of peace, which he reminds us in the next paragraph of the Res Gestae came through war and victory: â€Å"Peace had been secured by victories throughout the Roman Empire by land and sea.†It is not surprising, then, that in the carved panels flanking the doors of the Ara Pacis, the figure of Tellus/ Ceres/ Venus, surrounded by the images of fertility and peaceful abundance is matched by another figure, of Roma, seated on a pile of arms, reminding all viewers of the serious truth â€Å"that the blessings of peace had been won and made secure by the newly fortified virtus of Roman arms†(Zanker, 175). The altar enclosure carries sculpted friezes on all four sides. Tellus and Roma flank one door, Aeneas and Mars with Romulus and Remus the other. On the long sides a procession is depicted, showing Augustus himself and members of the Imperial family, accompanied by senators, lictors and priests preparing for a rite of sacrifice. Perhaps the processional image records the actual event of Augustus’s return to Rome. Some of the figures have been identified, rather tentatively, as individual people in the ruling group, but for the most part the faces are idealized, though distinctly human. Clearly there is a classicizing influence at work here. These are dignified and serious people, displaying â€Å"the Roman traditional concepts of dignity (dignitas) and sobriety (gravitas)†(Henig, 85). Although Henig argues that the procession commemorates â€Å"a specific event of contemporary history†¦ with anecdotal detail in three dimensional relief†(Henig, 74), it is s urely more the case that the classical dignity of the image is meant to convey â€Å"the idea of the return of Augustus, the guarantor (auctor) of peace†(Gallinsky, 142), and the presentation shows â€Å"not so much an individual action as a reflection of the underlying idea†(ibid). Augustus had refused the senate’s offer of a triumphant entry into the city, and accepted the Ara Pacis in its place, a structure of quite modest scale for a dictator, and understated in its imagery. The classicizing generality of the figures is part of the Augustan taste for moderation and restraint in all areas of life. The â€Å"elegant simplicity and clarity of style†(Henig, 74) reflect the classical model behind the design, the 5th century BC Panathenaic procession depicted in the Parthenon. Augustus’s inspiration could hardly have been more noble. The miraculous thing is that the Ara Pacis frieze escapes completely from the frigidity of the Parthenon sculptures , and from the pomposity of much nineteenth-century neo-classical statuary. It is interesting at this point to consider the images of Augustus himself produced during his lifetime. The Prima Porta statue of 27 BC is based on a Greek model, the Doryphoros of Polyclitus, which Quintilian calls â€Å"gravis et sanctis†, and thus a telling choice as a precedent. Augustus is shown addressing the troops, his right arm raised to command attention. Syme describes it as â€Å"showing the Princeps in his middle years, firm and martial but melancholy and dedicated to duty†(Syme, 470). The face has a calm, noble expression, its features â€Å"marked by a harmony of proportions, inspired by the Classical canon†(Zanker, 99). Like the Doryphoros, the hair has been arranged with careful attention to the rules of symmetry. The result is a look of â€Å"timeless and remote dignity†(ibid). It had little to do with Augustus’s actual appearance, but that is beside the point. This is how Augustus wished to be seen, it is the â€Å"image†of Augustus, an image which derives much of its authority from the great Classical models, with all their associations of seriousness, nobility and the ideals of human grandeur. The armour Augustus wears carries emblems of his achievement and reminders of the nature of the peace. â€Å"The rich panoply of symbols and personifications that decorate his cuirass refers to the establishment of peace (pax Augusta) in the Empire and Augustus’s role as restitutor orbis†(Henig, 85). At the centre of the cuirass a Parthian king hands the legionary eagle to an armed figure – a Roman centurion, perhaps, or even Mars Utor himself, to whom Augustus built a temple in Rome. Around them are placed heaven and earth. Two mourning women are on either side, emblems of the defeated nations. Apollo and Diana ride traditional animals, a griffin and a hind. Above, Sol is in a chariot above Apollo, Luna above Diana, while Caelus spreads out the cloth of heaven. Luna is being replace d by Dawn, who pours dew from a jug. Augustus’s victory over the Parthians thus takes on qualities imagined in terms of eternity, timeless like the idealized Classical face of the Emperor. â€Å"The Princeps who wears the new image of victory on his breastplate becomes the representative of divine providence and the will of God†(Zanker, 192). The second statue, from the Via Labicana, is from later in Augustus’s reign and shows us the Emperor dressed as a priest. The face is more individualized – the eyes are smaller, the cheekbones are visible, and the ears protrude. This is a more â€Å"real†Augustus, but the overwhelming effect of the statue is to show him as a serious and thoughtful figure. â€Å"The spirituality of the wise and benevolent father of the state and restorer of traditional morality emanates from the shaded deep-set eyes†(Henig, 85). The military commander is absent, but the same underlying conception is there; the god-like Emperor, who is both guardian of the security of the state, and also richly human in the most virtuous, intelligent, and pious ways. The sculptures of the Ara Pacis can be understood in these terms. The procession is towards a sacred ceremony. Around two thirds of the scenes involve members of the four principal colleges of priests, which Augustus had revived in his reform programme. The flamines can be identified by their traditional dress, a woollen cloak and a cap with a metal point. Membership of the priesthood was a mark of high status. Augustus entrusted the management of the annual sacrifices to officials of all the major priesthoods (thus skillfully diluting their real individual power). Here, some of the priests have veiled heads, which shows that the ceremony has begun. A woman puts her fingers to her lips to call for silence. â€Å"The dense rows of figures all similarly veiled in their togas give the impression of unity and uniformity. The sculptural style and composition, inspired by Classical reliefs, elevates the scene beyond the historical occasion into a timeless sphere†(Zanker, 121). Amon gst the Imperial family the women are draped in the style of Classical statues. Drusus, the successful general, stands in their midst. Children try to get the attention of their parents. As with the two Augustus statues, dignity and authority merge subtly with humanity. There is, as Gallinsky says, an â€Å"exquisite balance between stylization and informality†(Gallinsky, 152). The postures and gestures are varied, and in a way that is not merely the result of the artist’s desire to add variety to a potentially monotonous subject. â€Å"These are real people. They chat, even to the point of having to be admonished to be quiet, and the children wriggle and squirm as we know them to do at any official ceremony or church service†(ibid). That this is true, even though the principal mood is that of Classical decorum and sobriety, is a remarkable artistic – and perhaps political – achievement. Gallinsky goes on to call the Ara Pacis â€Å"one of the m ost humane monuments ever built by a powerful ruler†¦ This is not the pompous and grim monument of a party leader whose subjects are bullied into conformist succession. The relaxed attitude of the participants†¦ is in fact another manifestation of the blessings of pax†(ibid, 151-2). Mortimer Wheeler argues similarly for the remarkably relaxed grace of the work. He notes the delightful gestures of the lady hushing the chatterers, and the children â€Å"particularly vital in their display of childlike interest or boredom†(Wheeler, 165). While Bandinelli rather insensitively describes the work as â€Å"frigid in conception, sharing the programmatic conformity which stamps all official art†(Bandinelli, 189), Wheeler says that this is â€Å"wide of the mark. If frigid, these figures owe their aloofness to the calm assured, unanxious society which they represent†(Wheeler, 165), surely a very astute understanding of the relationship between Augustan art – even â€Å"official art†– and the mood of the society it expresses. Another fine piece of observation is Wheeler’s note that as we look along the frieze slabs form one vitally depicted head to another â€Å"there is no dramatic concentration upon the Emperor†(ibid). He stands, indeed, at the centre of the frieze, but he is only slightly taller than those around him, a quality he shares with Agrippa. The Emperor may be a god, but there is no personality cult at work. â€Å"He is merely primus inter pares†(ibid) and Wheeler sees this too as an example of the virtues of the Augustan era, â€Å"its quiet good manners and its undemonstrative confidence†(ibid). He contrasts this modest presentation of the Emperor with the image on the Arch of Titus about 100 years later, where the figure of the victorious Emperor is more prominent than the glory that seeks to crown him, and whose frontal positioning causes hopeless distortion of the perspective. This notion of Augustus’s modesty is certainly supported by Suetonius. He notes how Augustus â€Å"felt horrified and insulted when called ‘My Lord’†(Suetonius, 80), and would not let even his adopted children or grandchildren address him in this way. He al ways tried to avoid leaving or entering Rome in daylight â€Å"because that would have obliged the authorities to give him a formal welcome or send-off†(ibid). (This seems to be supported by his rejection of a triumphal entry after the Hispano-Gallic campaign, and the preference for the modesty and decorum of the Ara Pacis). Suetonius also describes the simplicity of Augustus’s living conditions. The furnishings of the palace would â€Å"now hardly be considered fit for a private citizen†(Suetonius, 92), and his dress was unostentatious. Of course he held formal dinner parties, but â€Å"There was no great extravagance, and a most cheerful atmosphere, because of his talent for making shy guests†¦ join in the general conversation†(ibid). And yet Syme reminds us that the blessings of the Augustan reign had a cost: â€Å"The new dispensation, or ‘novus status’, was the work of fraud and bloodshed, based upon the seizure of power and red istribution of property by a revolutionary leader†(Syme, 2). Both Bandinelli and Henig have complained of the lack of coherent plan in the Ara Pacis, â€Å"not in the quality of the sculpture, nor in the style and technique, but in the subject matter†(Henig, 73). The question is whether the processional friezes have anything to do with the mythical and allegorical panels flanking the doors at either end. If we have understood the nature of the friezes correctly, and their relationship to the Augustan vision of the Roman world, it is clear that the subject matter of the panels and their treatment are central to the statement of the work. Most important in this sense, as well as best preserved, is the panel depicting Tellus (or Venus, or Ceres). The subject of the panel is the blessings of abundance. A matronly woman sits in Classical dress, with two babies at her sides, reaching for her breast. Her lap is filled with fruit, and her hair is bound with a wreath of grain. Wheat and poppies grow behind her, and below her are farm animals. T he image celebrates growth and fertility. Either side of her are female figures, aurae, icons from Greek Classical tradition, who are emblems of the winds on land and sea. The land figure sits on a goose over a stream, the other has the sea monster under control (like Browning’s Duke, â€Å"taming a seahorse†). The aurae are the bringers of warmth and rain, the bestowers of abundance and successful harvest. â€Å"The overall structure is a paean to the fecundity, wealth, and harmony made possible by the Augustan peace†(Favro, 266). The female figure is Tellus, Mother Earth, but also Ceres, Venus, and perhaps Pax herself. The multiplicity of identities is enriching, not confusing. But this idyll is not allowed to stand alone as a dream vision. On the other side of the door, in the corresponding position, we see the figure of Roma sitting on a pile of arms, reminding us that the price of peace is military preparedness and conquest, â€Å"Peace based on world dom ination†(Gallinsky, 146). At the other end the panels celebrate the heroic past, putting the Augustan present into the grandest possible context. In one panel Aeneas is shown preparing to sacrifice after he has seen the portent prophesying his future in Italy. With Venus, and his son Julus, founder of the Julian family, who stands behind him, he is the ancestor of the Roman people, as are Romulus and Remus, presented in the corresponding panel with Mars, god of war, their father and thus also a Roman ancestor. It is the members of that family and the leaders of that people who walk in procession in the long friezes. Much of the wall surface is covered in delicate, symmetrical patterns of tendrils and vine clusters. This was a traditional decorative motif, but here the imagery of abundance takes on a particular relevance, which is reflected in the poetry of the period. The reference is to the myth of the Golden Age, and the implication of the use of such imagery, and so much of it, in the Ara Pacis is that the glorious present has recovered some of the qualities of that legendary past. As David Castriota says, â€Å"For poets like Horace and especially Virgil, who sought to idealize the stable and ordered Peace of the Augustan regime in the comparative terms of the mythic precedent, the analogy of a pristine era of blissful abundance and moral virtue must have seemed irresistible†(Castriota, 124). Such imagery was central to the Augustan picture of the world. In one sense the Ara Pacis might be seen as not entirely the modest and restrained monument suggested here, in that it appears that it was planned as part of a giant structure which sounds rather more Mussolini-like than anything hinted at so far. The Ara Pacis was placed where it would be part of a giant sundial, the hand a huge obelisk 100ft high, with Augustus’s mausoleum at the opposite end of the dial. Elaborate astronomical functions have been claimed for the design. The obelisk was of course a monument to the conquest of Egypt, so that the peace-through-victory notion is repeated. The Ara Pacis faced the Via Flaminia, which was the way Augustus had reentered the city after his campaign, and positioned in open ground â€Å"midway between Augustus’s Mausoleum and the built-up area of the southern Field of Mars, possibly coinciding with the pomerium (the sacred boundary of the city where soldiers had to lay aside their weapons)†(Claridge, 189). The positioni ng probably carried symbolic significance, joining secular and sacred ground, emphasizing the universality of Augustan rule. How much of this must one dismiss as the propaganda of a dictatorial regime? The Res Gestae is a curious document, hardly notable for its modesty. â€Å"Always it is the first person that is stressed†(Brunt and Moore, 4), say its editors, and it presents a highly selective view of the events of Augustus’s reign. He claims that he was unwilling to accept untraditional honours and powers, but â€Å"This plea is an example of clever propaganda writing†¦ He naturally did not mention that there was no precedent for any one man holding so many different positions and powers at the same time†(Brunt and Moore, 5). Syme says that Augustus’s account of recent history is nothing more than â€Å"official truth†(Syme, 522-3), and Tacitus, writing over 100 years later, was cynical: â€Å"He seduced the army with bonuses†¦ Opposition did not exist. War or judicial murder had disposed of all men of spirit†¦ Upper-class survivors found that slavis h obedience was the way to succeed†(Tacitus, 29-30). And yet for Horace, who we must remember fought against Octavius at Philippi, the Augustan peace was something very real. The Centennial Hymn, â€Å"a triumphal ode which is unique in the way it breathes serenity†(Horace, 31), is a tribute to Augustus’s achievements seen in terms of the establishment of peace, prosperity and safety. Now the Parthian fears the Alban axes, the forces mighty by sea and land; now Scythians and Indians, lately so proud, await our answer. Now Faith, and Peace, and Honour, and pristine Modesty, and Manhood neglected, dare to return, and blessed Plenty appears With her laden horn. (Horace, 168) The Augustan peace was something genuine for Horace, and it is difficult to see work of the quality of that in the Ara Pacis as the product of official artists merely. It is little wonder that both the Renaissance and the English eighteenth century saw the Augustan period, and its art architecture and poetry, as the great models to emulate. Works Cited Bandinelli, R.B., trans. Green, P. Rome. The Centre of Power. Roman Art to AD.200. London: Thames and Hudson, 1970. Brunt, P.A. Moore, J.M. (eds), Res Gestae. Oxford: Oxford U.P, 1967. Castriota, D. The Ara Pacis Augustae and the Imagery of Abundance in Later Greek and Early Roman Art. Princeton: Princeton U.P., 1995. Cooley, M.(ed.). The Age of Augustus. London: LACTOR, 2003. Claridge, A. Rome: an Oxford Archaeological Guide. Oxford: Oxford U.P., 1998. Favro, D. The Urban Image of Augustan Rome. Cambridge: Cambridge U.P., 1996. Henig, M. (ed.). A Handbook of Roman Art. Oxford: Phaidon, 1983. Galinsky, K. Augustan Culture. Princeton: Princeton U.P., 1996. Horace, trans. Shepherd, W.G., introd. Radice, B. The Complete Odes and Epodes. Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1983. Suetonius, trans. Graves, R. The Twelve Caesars. Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1957. Syme, R. The Roman Revolution. London: Oxford U.P.1960. Tacitus, trans. Grant, M. The Annals of Imperial Rome. Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1956. Wheeler, M. Roman Art and Architecture. London: Thames and Hudson, 1964. Zanker, P., trans. Shapiro, A. The Power of Images in the Age of Augustus. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan P., 1990.
Wednesday, September 4, 2019
Growth Kinetics of Microorganisms in a Shake Flask
Growth Kinetics of Microorganisms in a Shake Flask Abstract This experiment is carried out to study the growth kinetics of microorganisms in shake flask. E.coli is grown in a LB broth medium and being fermented for 24 hours. Throughout the fermentation, the cell culture is taken out for every 3 hours and protein test, glucose test and cell dry weight are being performed. As for the optical density analysis, the absorbance reading from the spectrophotometer is taken while for the glucose test, the reading of glucose level is taken from the YSI 2700 Select Biochemical Analyzer or can also being performed by using DNS reagent and the absorbance value is taken. These absorbance values will then being compared with the standard curve to get the glucose concentration inside the shake flask at particular time. The cell dry weight, in the other hand, is taken after the mass concentration is being dried overnight in the oven. The weight of the viral which contains the biomass before and after the drying process is recorded to get the dry cell weight. For the optical density of the cell, the absorbance value showed an increment which indicating that the cell was growing and number of cell is increased in the shake flask. The glucose concentration, however, cannot be determined as the absorbance values were increased and decreased unevenly and comparison cannot be made with the standard curve as the data for the standard curve are not consistent giving inaccurate curve. Therefore no conclusion can be made about the glucose concentration in the shake flask. Supposedly, as the number of cell increased, the glucose concentration would decrease as the glucose consumption by the cells is increased. The dry cell weight in the other hand can be seen that there is an increment from the beginning of the cultivation until the 6th hour and showed unstable changes until the 24th hour. Supposedly, as the number of cell increased inside the shake flask, the cell dry weight also should be increased. Introduction Fermentation can be carried out as batch, continuous and fed-batch processes. In this experiment, the shake flask fermentation is being used. Shake flask fermentation is the example of batch fermentation. In shake flask, the culture flask usually Erlenmeyer flask is being used to place and growing the microorganisms. It is the cheapest and easiest way to culture microorganism aerobically, in small volumes of nutrient broth. It is a small scale equipment which equivalent to stirred tank bioreactor. In order to prevent any contamination to the culture, shake flask must be plugged. Different plug can be made of cotton-wool, glass wool, polyurethane foam, gauze or synthetic fibrous material. The plug has to prevent airborne microorganism from getting into the medium while at the same time allowing free flow of air into the flask. The cultures are incubated at certain temperature and shaking frequency in an incubator shaker to achieve a required growth rate. The shaking agitates the medium and the culture to keep the mixture relatively homogeneous and also to ensure aeration, creating an aerobic condition. In batch culture, there is neither input supplied nor output generated throughout the fermentation. The medium culture is initially inoculated with the microorganism. The growth keeps increasing until at certain extent, the growth is inhibited because of the decreasing substrate concentration and the presence of toxic metabolites. Aims To study the growth kinetics of microorganism in shake flask experiment To construct a growth curve including lag, log, stationary and death phases To determine the Monod parameters Theory Shake flask fermentation is one of the examples of batch fermentation. Batch culture is an example of a closed culture system which contains an initial, limited amount of nutrient. The inoculated culture will pass through a number of phases. After an inoculation there is a period during which no growth appears to take place. This period is referred as the lag phase and may be considered as a time of adaptation. In a commercial process, the length of the lag phase should be reduced as much as possible. Following a period during which the cell gradually increases, the cell grows at constant, maximum rate and this period is known as the log phase or exponential phase. The exponential phase may be described by the equation below: =  µx -1 where x is the concentration of microbial biomass t is the time, in hours  µ is the specific growth rate, in hour -1 on integration, equation (1) gives = 2 where is the original biomass concentration is the biomass concentration after time interval, t hours During the exponential phase, the organism is growing at its maximum specific growth rate, for the prevailing conditions. Equation 2 predicts that growth will continue indefinitely. However, growth results in the consumption of nutrients and the excretion of microbial products. Thus after a certain time the cell growth rate will decrease until growth ceases. The cessation of growth may be due to the depletion of some essential nutrient in the medium when there is limitation in substrate. The decrease in growth rate and the cessation of growth due to the depletion of substrate may be described by the relationship between  µ and the residual growth-limiting substrate as follows:  µ = where = maximum growth rate s = residual substrate concentration = substrate utilization constant The stationary phase in batch culture is the point where the growth rate has declined to zero. In the other word the growth rate is equivalent to the death rate. The cell death is might due to the nutrient limitations due to their incorporation into cells during log-phase growth or a build-up of toxins due to their release of fermentation products also during log-phase growth. The death phase is the result of the inability of the bacteria to carry out further reproduction as condition in the medium become less and less supportive of cell division. The nutrient is extremely insufficient for the growth of the microorganism. Eventually, the number of viable bacterial cells begins to decline at an exponential rate. Industrial fermentation is usually interrupted at the end of the exponential growth phase or before the death phase begins. Apparatus and material E.coli Luria Bertani Broth Distilled water Shake flask Cotton-plugged Incubator shaker Cuvettes Centrifuges Micropipetor Pipette tips Laminar flow 70% ethanol Lighter and Bunsen burner Graduated cylinder Schott bottle DNS reagent Procedures Part 1: Preparation of inoculated fermentation medium 500ml shake flask, bunsen burner, measuring cylinder, LB broth and inoculums are brought into the laminar flow. Under aseptic technique, 50 ml of media is transferred into 500ml shake flask. Then 6 ml of inoculums is added into the shake flask resulting in final volume of 56ml. The shake flask is plugged with cotton-plugged. The shake flask is swabbed with 70% ethanol. The shake flask is incubated at 350 rpm; T=30ËÅ ¡C; 24 hours. Part 2: Sampling for cell dry weight 1ml of biomass concentration is taken out. The 1ml biomass concentration is transferred into micro centrifuge tube. An empty micro centrifuge tube must be weighted first. The sample is then centrifuged for 10 minutes at 10000 rpm. After that, the supernatant of the sample is taken out carefully without taking out any biomass. The biomass is then left dried inside an oven at 80C for overnight. The dried biomass is then being placed inside a dessicator to let it cool before rapidly weighing on an analytical balance. Part 3: Glucose analysis 1ml of biomass concentration is taken out. The 1ml biomass concentration is transferred into micro centrifuge tube. The sample is then put onto turntable of YSI 2700 Select Biochemical Analyzer for direct analysis of glucose concentration. Another method of glucose analysis is by using DNS reagent. 1.5ml of DNS reagent is added into 0.5ml of the biomass sample inside a capped test tube The mixture is heated at 90ËÅ ¡C for 10 minutes to develop the red-brown colour. The heated mixture is then cooled to the room temperature for 2-3 minutes in a cold or ice water. The mixture is then being diluted with 10ml of distilled water. The absorbance is checked with a spectrophotometer. Part 3: Sampling for absorbance analysis/ optical density 2ml of biomass concentration is taken out and being transferred into micro centrifuge tube. The spectrophotometer is calibrated to zero by blank consisting of 2ml LB Broth. The biomass concentration is then being transferred into a cuvette and optical density measurement is taken with wavelength set at 600nm. More absorbance means higher number of cell. Part 4: The preparation of glucose standard curve The 20g/L, 40g/L, 60g/L, 80g/L and 100g/L of glucose concentration is prepared by weighing the suitable amount of glucose and diluted with 10ml of distilled water. 1.5ml of DNS reagent is added with 0.5ml of the glucose sample inside a capped test tube The mixture is heated at 90ËÅ ¡C for 10 minutes to develop the red-brown colour. The heated mixture is then cooled to the room temperature for 2-3 minutes in a cold or ice water. The mixture is then being diluted with 10ml of distilled water. The absorbance is checked with a spectrophotometer Discussions This experiment is carried out to study the kinetic growth of microorganism. E.coli is selected as the cell and being cultivated inside a shake flask. The growth of microorganism in shake flask is a simple method of fermentation. The nutrients for the microorganism are being supplied by the media which contain the carbon sources. The flask is shaken during the cultivation to mix the cell and the media; increase the homogeneity between these two and also to provide aeration for the cells. The culture is gone through the fermentation process for 24 hours. Within that period, the biomass/cell sample is taken out for every 3 hours to analyze the concentration of the cell (g/L), the cell dry weight and the glucose concentration. In order to analyze the concentration of the cell inside the flask, absorbance reading for the optical density is taken from the spectrophotometer. The higher the absorbance reading means higher number of cell presence inside the flask at a particular time. As for this experiment, the absorbance reading is increase from the beginning of the experiment until the 21st hour and decrease slightly at the 24th hour. It can be explained that the number of cell increase throughout the cultivation indicating that the cell is growing. In the other hand, the decrease in cell number in 24th hour indicating that the cell growth has reach its deceleration phase where the growth of the cell is started to slow down. The decelerating growth phase is where the culture is in a transient state. During this stage there are feed/back mechanisms that regulate the bacterial enzymes involved in key metabolic steps to enable the bacteria to withstand starvation. There is much turnover of protein for the cultu re to cope with this period of low substrate availability. In cell growth, the cell will go through several phases like lag, exponential, deceleration, stationary and death phase. In cell cultivation, the cells themselves need food or carbon sources like glucose for growth. In batch fermentation for example in this experiment, the glucose can be the limiting factor for the cell growth or we called it as substrate limiting growth. For this condition, the Monod equation can be used to predict the growth rate and the cell concentration inside the shake flask. In addition, the glucose concentration can be known by testing the cell sample into the glucose analyzer and the direct glucose concentration can be obtained. In other way, the glucose concentration is also being obtained by mixing the sample with DNS reagent. The DNS reagent will be reduced to 3-amino,5-nitrosalicylic acid in the presence of free carboxyl group (glucose) and absorbance reading can be taken through the spectrophotometer. As for this experiment, the glucose test showed no pattern of changes in absorbance values. These values increase and decrease unevenly. This might be due to some mistakes occurred during the glucose test where the volume of sample and DNS reagent that need to be mixed is incorrectly taken. This has affected the accuracy of the absorbance reading. From the absorbance reading, the concentration of the glucose can be obtained by referring to the glucose standard curve. The glucose concentration should be decreased as the number of cell inside the flask is increased. This is because as the number of organism increases, nutrients are consumed and becoming lesser. However, this cannot be shown from the results obtained due to some mistakes occurred throughout the experiment. Another analysis that can be performed to analyze the cell sample is by taking the dry weight of the cell. In this method, the cell is being taken out from cultivation flask and transferred into viral tube. The tube is the being centrifuged to separate the supernatant with the cell. The remained cell is then being dried inside an oven for 24 hours. The dry cell weight is finally taken to know the weight of the cell that present at particular time during the cultivation. In this experiment, the cell dry weight is increased from 0th hour until 6th hour and gradually decreased from the 9th hour to 12th hour and increased until the 24th hour. The cell dry weight should increase when the number of cell increased inside the shake flask. Conclusions At the end of this experiment, microorganism is suitable to be fermented inside a shake flask and it is a simple method to investigate the growth kinetics of the microorganism. Knowledge of microbial growth kinetics is essential to determine when to harvest the culture for different purposes. For a growth-linked product, it is desirable to harvest the culture at the late exponential growth phase. On the other hand, for a non-growth-linked product, it would be desirable to harvest the culture at the stationary growth phase. As microorganism will go through several phases in their growth, several analyses on the cell need to be done to know the growth kinetics of the cell and the duration for each phase. This includes the cell concentration, glucose concentration and also the cell dry weight analyses. This method can be done in the laboratory before the fermentation or the cultivation of microbes in large scale is performed. Growth kinetics deals with the rate of cell growth and how it is affected by various chemical and physical conditions. During the course of growth, the cells is continuously changing and adapting itself in the media environment, which is also continuously changing in physical and chemical conditions. In conclusion, the microbial culture in batch culture system (shake flask system) goes through a lag phase, exponential growth phase, decelerating growth phase, stationary phase and sometimes the death phase depends on the end product desired. The substrate concentration in the culture medium and growth parameters, such as glucose concentration changes correspondingly throughout the growth phases. Thus, the physiology of the microorganisms is always in a transient stage, subjected to a continually changing culture conditions. Consequently, product formation is confined to a certain period of cultivation, for example antibiotics would only be produced in the decelerating and stationary growth phases. The batch culture system is still widely used in certain industrial processes for example brewery industry because of its easy management of feed stocks. These advantages allow the use of unskilled labour and low risk of financial loss. Low level of microbial contamination in fermented products is at time tolerable, as long as the microbial contaminants are not pathogenic and do not alter the desired properties of the product, such as taste, colour and texture. Recommendations Aseptic technique must be practised when handling biomass concentration to avoid any contamination. Cuvette must be wiped cleanly to prevent any scratch that would affect the spectrophotometer reading during protein test. This experiment must be carried out under the laminar flow to prevent any contamination to the culture. The supernatant of cell concentration should be taken out carefully without any taking out of the biomass. The cap of the viral must be opened to fasten the drying process of the biomass in the oven. Wash hand after handling the culture. Disinfect the work area with 70% alcohol before handling the culture. Dispose of all contaminated materials in appropriate containers.
Tuesday, September 3, 2019
Resident Evil 3-Nemesis :: essays research papers
Resident Evil 3-Nemesis Bio Hazard 3-Last Escape --Faqs/Walkthrough--[by Rann Yong] Table of Contents ----------------- 01. Intro 02. What's New 03. Controls 04. Characters 05. Walkthrough I. September 28th, daylight... II. October 1st, night... 06. Secrets 07. Mecenaries Game 08. Rank/ Grade 09. Miscellaneous 10. About 11. Special Thanks 01. Intro --------- This is the first faq/ walkthrough I ever wrote, so please forgive me for not good in writting this faq. I must say that this game is harder than the previous series of Bio Hazard as the Boss (the one chasing you) in this episode is difficult to handle. So don't underestimate this game! Nemesis will come running at you all the time! He won't rest until you die in his hand...you will notice that, by the time he appear he will say "DIE!!" For this faq is quite or very hard for me to explain because there's lot of parts such as where the item location is, will differs according to your progress in the game. So instead of telling you where the item is, I rather not include that, sorry!! But don't worry the item can be obviously seen if you look hard. This game is rather short but writting walkthrough is not that short...especially come explaining something difficult although my explaination is not that good. The walkthrough section only emphasize on the important item such as key. In other words, the location of green herbs, first aid spray, etc is not discussed. I recommended you guys and gals go get all the Bio Hazard series, as to exactly know what is happening. The objective in Bio Hazard 3 is solely escaping from the Raccoon City. 02. What's New -------------- Version 0.2 ----------- -include walkthrough, character, miscellaneous faq including gunpowder mixing. -update on mercenaries game, I forgot another civilian from the last version. Version 0.1 ----------- -First released -Include mercenaries game, controls, etc. -Not much but enough to get you through the game 03. Controls ------------ The following control is by default in the game. Control is break into two parts, basic movement, and new movement. Basic movement Control ------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Walk forward D-pad up Walk backward D-pad down Turn right D-pad right Turn left D-pad left Run D-pad up while holding X New movement Control ------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 180 degrees turn Press(or hold) D-pad down and X simultaneously Avoid obstacles Rapidly press R1,R2 or L1 when enemy's going to attack you 04. Characters -------------- Name: Jill Gender: Female Occupation: S.T.A.R.S. member Purpose: Escape from Raccoon City Control through game: Yes Control through mercenaries game: No Name: Carlos Gender: Male Occupation: Mercenary hired by Umbrella Purpose: Rescue the civilians in Raccoon City Control through game: Yes Control through mercenaries game: Yes Name: Mikhail Gender: Male Occupation: Mercenary hired by Umbrella Purpose: Rescue the civilians in Raccoon City
Monday, September 2, 2019
Media And The Government :: essays research papers
The media can often have a large impact on public opinion. The general community can be swayed based purely upon how the news carries a story. This places a massive responsibility on the media. They must decide what is appropriate and how to address certain topics.      In the cartoon the author was describing the impact the media can have on presidential races. People, in general, like to know the gossip about candidates. They like hearing the dirt, it brings the nominees down to the level of the common man. Since this is what the press knows the people want to hear this is what they publish. The more inside details the news gives the more people will want to buy their product. This cartoonist was showing the extremes that the media will go to in order to sell their product. The producers of all types of media are not stupid though, if a story has gone on to long or no longer interests the American public they will listen to public opinion and change subjects immediately. In the case of presidential campaigns media producers know that it affects all Americans so they can drag out different topics. Voters demand to know as much about candidates as they possibly can so that when they are in the booth they can make the best possibl e decision. The news has they used polls and realized that people don’t vote because of issues alone. They also vote (or don’t vote) for a candidate because of his personal appearance, attitude, or even actions in the public eye. Since these are all reasons for choosing certain contenders the media can publish stories that have so little relevance to the actual campaign and still sell their merchandise. The author of these cartoons was suggesting that perhaps the media might take things to far at times.      Their are certain characteristics that apply to all forms of media that explain their reasons for writing and exploring the issues that they do. The media has been assigned certain roles by society. One of those roles is that of the gatekeeper. This gatekeeper role means that the media decides what issues make news, and for how long they make news. Also, media is supposed to be a sort of scorekeeper. They decide who is winning and losing in political contests. This is very important because it can sway public opinion greatly. Media And The Government :: essays research papers The media can often have a large impact on public opinion. The general community can be swayed based purely upon how the news carries a story. This places a massive responsibility on the media. They must decide what is appropriate and how to address certain topics.      In the cartoon the author was describing the impact the media can have on presidential races. People, in general, like to know the gossip about candidates. They like hearing the dirt, it brings the nominees down to the level of the common man. Since this is what the press knows the people want to hear this is what they publish. The more inside details the news gives the more people will want to buy their product. This cartoonist was showing the extremes that the media will go to in order to sell their product. The producers of all types of media are not stupid though, if a story has gone on to long or no longer interests the American public they will listen to public opinion and change subjects immediately. In the case of presidential campaigns media producers know that it affects all Americans so they can drag out different topics. Voters demand to know as much about candidates as they possibly can so that when they are in the booth they can make the best possibl e decision. The news has they used polls and realized that people don’t vote because of issues alone. They also vote (or don’t vote) for a candidate because of his personal appearance, attitude, or even actions in the public eye. Since these are all reasons for choosing certain contenders the media can publish stories that have so little relevance to the actual campaign and still sell their merchandise. The author of these cartoons was suggesting that perhaps the media might take things to far at times.      Their are certain characteristics that apply to all forms of media that explain their reasons for writing and exploring the issues that they do. The media has been assigned certain roles by society. One of those roles is that of the gatekeeper. This gatekeeper role means that the media decides what issues make news, and for how long they make news. Also, media is supposed to be a sort of scorekeeper. They decide who is winning and losing in political contests. This is very important because it can sway public opinion greatly.
Need for speed Essay
The desire to innovate and to improve is one of the most precious human feelings because it is this very same desire that has paved the road to progress in society. At the outset, the first trains were useful but not efficient enough that people could ride on them: only goods and commodities could be transported. One of the reasons why is because safety and comfort weren’t a top priority for the railroad owner; he or she just wanted to maximize his or her profit. Then, James Watt and his steam engine came about and rocked the world into the Industrial Revolution, a time when railroads were constantly being built all over Europe. Cities grew, economies boomed and busted, and economies and cultures became intertwined so that a small business man who lives in Lille, France or Barcelona, Spain had to travel to Ukraine or Italy for a business deal as quickly as possible (as quickly as possible since now, as opposed to the relaxed and laid back past, time is money). So engineers were needed to devise a train that could travel at very fast speeds while keeping energy consumption as low as possible. The Japanese started the race for faster high speed trains with their â€Å"bullet trains†, the French countered with the TGV, and many other companies came out with their own high speed trains: Acela, Eurostar, and the Shinkansen, among others [3]. The increase in competition benefitted the consumer, the individual needing to get across the continent because now he or she had a choice between different trains, each known for a specific accommodation. For example, TGV was an electric train so the energy consumption of the trains is very low. However, it is little noisier than other lines so the trade off is subjective to the person’s taste. Eventually, all the train lines would try to balance energy consumption, safety, speed, and comfort in order to provide the smoothest trip they could possibly offer. [4] In essence, aerodynamics is the interaction of air on an object [7]. In the case of high speed trains, the aerodynamics of the train depends on many factors: â€Å"aerodynamic drag, pressure variations inside train, train-induced i ¬ow, cross-wind effects, ground effects, pressure waves inside tunnel, impulse waves at the exit of tunnel, noise and vibration†. [8] Ultimately, finding solutions to these problems will result in a faster and smoother train ride, so it becomes imperative to identify the factors that affect each of these so one can manipulate them, if possible, to one’s needs. However, having so many factors that affect the aerodynamics of a train, one can truly begin to see how complex this problem is for engineers since every change made to the train or the tracks could cost the companies owning them a huge amount of money for even the smallest of changes. Specifically, the invention of the high speed train has revolutionized long distance ground transportation since it has provided people with a much faster way to travel, sometimes cutting a seven hour long trip to three hours! However, to reduce such a trip so significantly, the path from city to city (in this place Boston to Washington D. C. ) must be as direct as possible [2]. This means that in some cases a tunnel must be built through a mountain to allow for a high speed train to pass through the mountain and get to its destination as quickly as possible. In terms of high speed trains, there are many different types, each with its advantages and disadvantages. For example, the world renown TGV It has huge advantage in that it can use the same railroad lines as local trains so the cost of making railroad tracks is reduced. However, one of the disadvantages is that using these same train tracks, just the mere fact that the TGV uses the same tracks as local trains means that the TGV limits the size and specifications of local trains because the wake of the TGV causes a wind tunnel that affects the trains behind it. [1] [2] In terms of what the future has in store, trains haven’t even started to reach their limit. From regular train to the high speed train, the speed was increased. The TGV is an obvious example of this transition given that it broke the record for the fasted train, maxing out at 357 mph. The next step is along the lines of the Japanese Maglev; taking friction out of the equation, the Maglev has the ability to greatly reduce the drag and the vibration in the train, thus making the train that much faster. In the foreseeable future, there is a concept that would take the Maglev above and beyond its achievements so far: an â€Å"evacuated tube†is a massive vacuum in a tube stretching for miles and miles. Interestingly, if this method is designed and works, it may potentially reap the benefits since the beginning. This occurs because air drag takes such a significant amount of energy out of the system (the system being defined as the train) that minimizing it to a negligible level could immediately save millions upon millions of dollars [8] [9]. On the other hand, there are changes that have been made to the train itself rather than to the environment surrounding it. The Japanese Hayabusa’s nose is angled and sleek so it can eliminate tunnel boom, the sound of a train leaving a tunnel. Tunnel boom is caused by a fast train pressurizing the air in front of it as it goes through a tunnel until it comes out of the tunnel with the pressurized air and makes a very loud sound. Trains in the past had a smaller tunnel boom that occurred right before the train left the tunnel (the sound of a train coming from inside a tunnel); however, now that the trains are that much faster, they catch up to the pressurized air and come out together, creating constructive interference, to make a bigger sound [5]. Furthermore, the French Alstrom developed an upgraded TGV called the AGV. What was interesting about how the French upgraded the TGV is that they took the power system of the TGV and completely transformed it; now it has the capacity of generating higher speeds at a fraction of the original TGV energy consumption. Don’t forget that the TGV was designed as an electric train, so to have a power system that can do more with less energy is a huge advancement! [5] In conclusion, the fact remains that the fast paced society of today has geared people to want to do everything more quickly. Following this train of thought, it makes sense that high speed trains are the future in transportation. Throughout history, people have shown a want, a need for speed. Works Cited [1] Fox News. Associated Press. http://www. foxnews. com/story/0,2933,263542,00.html (accessed July 15th, 2012) [2] Plumer, Brad. The Washington Post. http://www. washingtonpost. com/blogs/ezra-klein/wp/2012/07/16/amtraks-151-billion-high-speed-rail-plan-are-there-cheaper-options/ (accessed July 15th, 2012) [3] European Railway Server. TGVweb. http://www. trainweb. org/tgvpages/history. html(accessed July 17th, 2012) [4] http://www. buzzle. com/articles/advantages-and-disadvantages-of-maglev-trains. html [5] Railway-Technology. com. On Track. http://www. railway-technology. com/features/feature117829/(accessed July 15th, 2012). [6] James, Randy. Time U. S. http://www. time. com/time/nation/article/0,8599,1892463,00. html (accessed July 16th, 2012) [7] Bopp, Rudolf; Hagenah, Bernd. Gruner. http://www. gruner-gmbh. at/aktuelles_gmbh_at/pdf_pool/D_HAB_Porto. pdf [8] Raghunathan, Raghu S. ; Setoguchi, T. Progress in Aerospace Sciences. Aerodynamics of high-speed railway train http://ompldr. org/vMXlsOA/Aerodynamics_HSR02. pdf [9] Hoffman, Carl. Popsci: Trans-Atlantic Maglev. http://www. popsci. com/scitech/article/2004-04/trans-atlantic-maglev.
Sunday, September 1, 2019
Breaking Social Norms
Before proceeding to a detailed discussion of my experience in breaking a social norm, there is a need to define and elaborate some of the types of social norms. Generally, social norms are accepted ways of thinking, feeling, behaving that people in a group agree on and endorse as right and proper. These social norms often take various forms. They can be institutionalized, thus becoming the standard rules of behavior in a society (e. g. law). They can also be manifest rules â€Å"that silently tells someone of the approved forms of behavior†(Light et al. , 1989).Hence, it can be said that social norms comprised most of the conventional behaviors perceived in a given society (it is generally noted that social norms differ across societies – spatially and periodically). Nonetheless, social norms are enforced differently. There are social norms considered to be rigid in application; that is, all members of the society need to follow such rules. These social norms are call ed mores. Frequently, mores are transformed into laws, expected to be followed by all members of the society (violation is considered to be a threat to social organization).There are also norms that are laxly enforced by members of the society. These are called folkways. Generally, folkways are the society’s web of cultural or spiritual rituals, traditions, and routines. Deviance (breaking a social norm is synonymous to deviance) is not considered a threat to social organization. Sanction for violating folkways or traditions is less severe than moral deviance. Breaking a Social Norm As part of the requirements in our sociology course, the professor asked us to break a social norm (without contributing physical or mental danger to other people).A paper will be submitted detailing the specifics of the experience. Initially, I had this fear of social retribution for violating a social norm. Rather than thinking of the form of action I will take in breaking a social norm, I focus ed more on the consequences. However, since the professor assured us that we were only required to break a â€Å"soft†social norm, that is, a norm laxly enforced by the society, I felt relieved. I began enumerating the possible â€Å"soft†social norms I could remember. I remembered that wearing pajamas in movie theaters usually embarrasses many people.Usually, you will hear people talking of your â€Å"fashion style. †Other people usually gossip of the â€Å"strangeness†of the â€Å"person at his/her front†(a person wearing pajamas). However, as a student of sociology, I would never accept such assertions unless validated by experience or empirical research. Thus, for the first time, I became enthusiastic of my forthcoming experience. There were two things I considered before breaking a social norm: the color of the pajama I would be using and of course, the relative number of people in the theater. Usually, people going to movie theaters are embarrassed to see persons wearing yellow pajamas.I really do not know the reason behind this observation. What I really cared is that it is possible that the people are reacting not on the appropriateness of wearing pajamas in movie theaters but on the color of the pajamas. Hence, I used a white pajama to eliminate this possibility. The relative number of people going to theater also poses another problem. If I chose a theater which is seldom visited by people, then I will not be able to fully substantiate my deviance. Because deviance is partially measure by the degree of disagreement by the deviant and the society (this is really hard to measure), number is a factor.Hence, choosing the â€Å"right†movie theater (which is observed to be a frequent visiting place for many people) is a factor in executing the experience. I wore a white pajama that day. The movie theater was four blocks away from my residence. I decided to walk. It was about 4 o’clock in the afternoon. In the streets, I noticed that some people were staring at my pajamas. Some of them laughed; some threw a smile on me (most of the persons who laughed were men). It was clear to me that my pajama was causing the â€Å"disturbance†(or more appropriate, the social labeling of a deviant).Then I entered the entrance door of the theater. I noticed that the guard was somehow reluctant to allow me to enter the movie theater. Because I bought a ticket, he had no choice but to allow me to enter the place. Upon entrance to the theater, I saw some persons staring at me. Definitely, they were thinking that my dress is not an appropriate one when going to movie theaters. After a few seconds, they fixed their eyes on the movie screen. Then, I began to walk in the stairs of the movie theater just to take note of the reactions of the people I passed by.Some people were annoyed at the â€Å"inappropriateness†of my dress. I could trace it on the movements of their eyes. I knew that t hey were directing their view to my dress. Then, I settled on a seat located on the right side of the movie screen. I noticed that the person at my back was directing a laugh to his date. I guessed my dress was the cause. I felt a little distressed on the reactions of the people on my dress. Added to that, because I was the only one â€Å"wearing a strange dress†, I felt that I was the focus of attention (disregarding the fact that most of the people in the movie theater focused on the movie).Then, I noticed that almost all people in the theater were back in their usual â€Å"business. †The person at my back stopped from laughing. Most of the people fixed their eyes on the big screen. During the climax of the movie, I felt that everything was back in the normal. It seemed that that movie altered the focus of the people. Instead of fixing their eyes on my dress, they directed it to the movie screen. The movie screen (and the movie, of course) was a big help. When the m ovie was about to end, I noticed that some people were again fixing their eyes to my dress.Some people passing by my seat just ignored me. I felt a little relieved having observed that many people were ignoring me. I felt a little surprise when one of the movie-goers asked me the reason for wearing a white pajama in the movie theater. I said that it was my custom in when going to movie theaters. The person threw a smile at me. I know the thing running in his mind. He was really struck to see a person wearing a white pajama in the movie theater. Breaking the social norm I chose was not really easy. I knew that people would perceive me as a deviant once I start breaking a norm.Although it was a â€Å"soft†social norm, the propensity of a general reaction from people would surely be manifested in their covert behavior; that is, their â€Å"silent†disagreement over the inappropriateness of my dress would surely result to gossip and laughter. These general reactions thoug h were proven (through my experience) to be momentarily. These reactions were the result of initial discomfort or uneasiness to some people going in the movie theater. Gender difference with regard to the intensity of reaction was significant. Most of the people who laughed at my dress were men.Since the norm I broke was a â€Å"soft†one, I did not experience any harsh moral sanction. The reason lies on the nature of the norm itself. The norm is part of the routine activities of the people (that going to movie theaters with pajamas is not appropriate), hence does not constitute any moral evaluation. Thus, the sanctions (gossip and laughter) that were directed to me by some of the movie goers were correlated to the type of social norm I broke. Personally, I would really like to repeat this experience (not for experience’s sake) for empirical validation.Empirical validation is usually effective when multiple points of experiences are examined. In this case, repetition s erves as factual and theoretical validation of some elements of social deviance. References Light, Donald. (1989). Sociology. NY: McGraw-Hill Companies. Social Norms. (2007). Retrieved on October 27, 2007 from http://72. 14. 253. 104/search? q=cache:eMCHZe0mVroJ:www. buec. udel. edu/kimt/Leading%2520People/10. 11%2520Social%2520Norm%2520%26%2520Communication. ppt+definition+of+a+social+norm&hl=tl&ct=clnk&cd=2&gl=ph&client=firefox-a.
Subscribe to:
Posts (Atom)